Book Review: God Against the Gods: The History of the War Between
Monotheism and Polytheism by Jonathan Kirsch
(Viking Compass 2004)
This is a very interesting and informative analysis of the
interaction of monotheism and polytheism from 2nd millennium B.C. Egypt to the
death of Hypatia in the 400’s C.E. Most of the book is an analysis of the
interaction of Judaism with Middle Eastern and Hellenistic paganism from about
1000 B.C. and of Christianity with Hellenistic but mostly Roman paganism. There
is some great history here from a perspective that is non-biased or perhaps
biased just a bit toward polytheism – which is unusual. The author seems quite
knowledgeable. The only complaint I have is the conspicuous absence of
Persian/Zoroastrian monotheism. Since the author included the Egyptian
monotheistic reformer Ankhenaton he should have also included the Persian
monotheistic reformer Zoroaster. The more rigorous monotheists here are
characterized as those who fought to establish the One True God and abolish all
others as inferior or evil. Such intolerance was often accompanied by the
destruction of statues, temples, and texts devoted to other gods. Pagans from
Hellenic, Roman, and Near Eastern lands worshipped many gods, some considered
higher than others but all were generally accepted. With monotheism and the
worship of the Only True God, other gods came to be called False Gods, and
worse – Devils. This is not unprecedented as it appears the split of tribes in
pre-Vedic times led to the Vedics and Avestans (Persians) calling the gods of
the others devils – or demi-gods in the case of the Vedics. This notion of not honoring and demonizing
others’ gods is likely what annoyed the pagans when dealing with monotheistic
Jews and Christians. After a while they were persecuted for it.
He gives a quote from Sigmund Freud:
“Religious intolerance was inevitably born with the belief
in one God.”
Humans seem to be religious or given to worshipping gods by
nature – perhaps as a consequence of the scenario-building that helped us
survive and evolve, later applied to the quest to understand the unknown and
deal with the anxiety associated with the inevitability of death.
Monotheistic religious intolerance is still problematic
today as religious fanatics such as the 911 bombers kill people for strictly
dogmatic reasons. Of course, polytheism produced fanatics as well, but the very
nature and structure of polytheism is inclusive rather than exclusive and this
inclines it more towards tolerance as has been the case throughout history. Roman
paganism was quite a mish mash of traditions where one might pick and choose
how one worshipped – perhaps not too unlike today. Tolerance was the rule of
the day. Some cults were orgiastic and given to excesses, animal sacrifice to
the gods was very common, but other cults were more austere and favored a more
tempered morality. According to Franz Cumont: “Temperance, courage, chastity,
obedience to parents and magistrates, [and] reverence for the oath and the
law,” were core Roman pagan values. Kirsch points out that there was no concept
of “heresy” in polytheism as basically all was permitted. Heresy was a major
concept in Christianity and it is likely that more Christians were persecuted
and killed by other Christians who branded their version of Christianity heretical,
than were persecuted and killed by pagans. Concerning multiple religions, the
pagan prefect Symmachus wrote: “It is not possible that only one road leads to
so sublime a mystery.”
The biblical notion of Yahweh as a jealous god is well known
– as he proclaims that to have gods other than him is an abomination. The
Hellenes and Roman pagans were perfectly willing to bring the Hebrew god – as
Iao – into their pantheon – and did. He was also Jove, equated with Jupiter and
Zeus as a high god. What the bible calls zeal the historians call rigorism, or
extreme strictness – ie. rigid belief. Such rigorism among pagans as well as
Jews and Christians inspired some extreme ascetic behaviors as well. Asceticism
in these cases, says the author, is rigorism turned inward. Rigorism turned
outward may be used to harm and persecute others. Such zeal is the source of
terrorism. Although there is a smattering of rigorism in many doctrines it is
by and far most common with monotheistic belief. Kirsch also points out that
the word “pagan” is a derogatory term created by monotheists – like “infidel,”
“heathen,” or “idolator.” Western history (ie. Christian history) is certainly
biased against polytheists and non-Christians. Ironically, the word “atheist”
was first used by Roman pagans referring to Christians who denied the Roman
pantheon.
In 1400’s B.C. Egypt came Pharaoh Ankhenaton – who favored
the god Aton – represented as a sun disk in midday splendor – over all other
gods. He ordered the closing of temples and destruction of statues of other
gods. His One True God was not depicted with an idol. He built a new capital as
well. This is the first known situation in history of both monotheism and of
the systematic rejection of other gods. Ankhenaton’s reign lasted less than
twenty years and at his death Egypt
promptly returned to its polytheistic past – his name was etched out of the
famed lists of kings. One of his sayings: “O Thou only God, there is no other
God than Thou,” is suggested as a possible precursor to similar Hebrew
statements. Famed Egyptologist Jan Assman notes the similarities of Aton with
the Hebrew Adonai. Sigmund Freud went so far as to speculate that Moses was
actually an Egyptian priest of Aton who took the monotheistic doctrine of
Ankhenaton and brought it to the people of Israel .
The word “Elohim” in Hebrew is a plural that means “gods”
rather than “God.” The Jews were once polytheistic, with household idols
(teraphim) such as fertility goddesses. Some of these were of Asherah – a
Canaanite goddess sometimes called the wife of Yahweh. This suggests that
polytheism was practiced among the Hebrew people with the exception of the
elite, or priestly class among them, who condemned it. Asherah is condemned as
evil in the Bible. The Old Testament is replete with the extremism of Yahweh
concerning his threats and demands of strict obeisance.
The core value of monotheism is exclusivity – the complete
rejection of all but one god and all but one doctrine. Despite some useful
biblical moral teachings here and there, one can surely see the insanity of
such a biased view, right? Certainly the kinder and gentler version of God is
emphasized by today’s religionists. Says Kirsch, certain biblical prophets have
equated the sins of apostasy and idolatry with adultery and harlotry – so that
God becomes as a cuckolded husband who is bitter and angry. Thus Yahweh appears
as jealous and avenging.
Paganism, as depicted in the Bible is replete with harlotry,
idolatry, sorcery, and human sacrifice. The temple harlots of Babylon described by Herodotus were a prime
biblical example of the debauchery of paganism. In reality such temple
prostitution may not have been as widespread as thought and much of it
metaphorical. Fertility was certainly one goal of such practices. Prostitution,
some associated with pagan cult activity, was practiced in Roman times but
there were varying views of it. Many pagans did not approve of it and the wild
drunken orgies devoted to Bacchus were outlawed in the vicinity of Rome in 186 B.C.
Human sacrifice was depicted as appalling by the Jews who
pointed to Canaanite practice of it. Eventually though, both monotheists and
polytheists gave up the practice in favor of animal sacrifice. After Yahweh
spares the child of Abraham in favor of a ram, this common practice of
infanticide was given over to animal sacrifice and possibly circumcision as a
surrogate form of it. There is a similar story in Greek myth where Agamemnon
was about to sacrifice his daughter to Artemis, but she spares the girl and
takes a deer instead. The Romans issued edicts against human sacrifice and
considered the practice of it by the barbarian Germanic and Celtic tribes to be
appalling. However, we all know the cruelty of the Romans with the gladiatorial
combats and the torturing of criminals and some war captives. Criminals
sentenced to death could be considered to be sacrificial victims as well since
they might be offered to a god or goddess.
The Jews and Christians also sermonized against the role of
women in divine matters since their One True God was male. Pythonesses, Vestal
Virgins, healer women, and their goddesses were denounced. This manifested much
later in the Inquisition as condemnation and mass execution of country women
and herbalists as witches. Apparently, there were pagan puritans as well –
denouncing adultery, prostitution, and homosexuality as criminal. Some
priesthoods required celibacy. The open sexual revelries of devotees of Bacchus
and Cybele were not always tolerated. Biblical authors considered polytheism as
a form of promiscuity. The author notes that Babylon
in the Book of Revelations was a code word for Rome – “the mother of harlots and the
abominations of the earth.”
Yahweh was also a war god and as we know he does much
“smiting” in the Bible. Total destruction (genocide) of various tribes is not
uncommon. King Saul is denounced and de-ranked by Yahweh for sparing the enemy
king. The Jews considered themselves the Chosen People – chosen by the One True
God. The author gives the story of the Jewish King Josiah (648-609 B.C.) as a
key figure in the development of monotheism. It is thought that at that time
monotheism was not so strong as there were still Asherah figures and graven
images. Josiah waged a holy war, a purge by the sword of execution, of all
cults and tribal practices that did not worship Yahweh only. He claimed to have
found a lost scroll in the Temple
of Solomon Temple
of Solomon Babylon . The common people reverted back to
their traditional polytheism. Some fifty years later the Persians liberated the
Jews from Babylon
and they were allowed to return. They separated themselves as “Holy Seed” from
the commoners and began to rebuild the Temple of Solomon Masada ended that particular
uprising of Jewish freedom fighters but there would be others. Over the next
few centuries there were uprisings of rigorists and cooperation as well as
accomodationists of the Roman empire . The
writings of Flavious Josephus, a cooperator with the Romans, but also an
admirer of Jewish zeal, would write of the history of Jewish zeal, conceding
that such holy warring should come to an end. Sometime after the temple at Jerusalem was lost to the
Romans there was a reformation of Jewish emphasis and the Jews basically made
peace with the pagans. The new Talmudic Jews de-emphasized zeal and rigorism in
favor of loving-kindness, study of the traditions, dietary law, and observance
of the Sabbath. After this the Jews and Romans integrated more, some Romans
even becoming Jews. Curious pagans were attending synagogues in Rome in the first century
C.E.
Hellenic philosophers were both complementary and counter to
pagan religious practices. Their chief function was to promote morality. Plato
and his successors, among others, could be said to have promoted in their
Monism, a kind of ethical monotheism, but it was not based on denigration of
other gods. Neoplatonists, like pagans, were syncretists. Many adherents to
pagan cults considered the idea of a Supreme Divinity – as Zeus, King Helios,
Isis and Serapis, the Great Mother, Mithras, and others.
Paul, Saul of Tarsus, was instrumental in making
Christianity available to the masses in the Roman Empire
by taking the Judaic requirements out of the sect. He was also instrumental in
demonizing the religions of the pagans. Christians were first considered a
nuisance in Rome
but were tolerated. Then came to be persecuted – first by Nero as blamed them
for burning Rome .
Christians were despised by their refusal to participate in the ritual worship
expected of Roman citizens – as the Pax
Romana (Peace of Rome) depended on the Pax
Deorum (Peace of the Gods). Thus they were considered unpatriotic. There
were even slanders and rumors about these atheists (Christians as
non-believers) so that they were demonized – much like they came to demonize
others. Regarding the so-called Christian martyrs – those given to the lions
and such, there is much disagreement. Some historians say they were tortured by
the Romans (as criminals were tortured) and some say much of it was Christian
propaganda. When Christianity was criminalized there came to be “confessors,”
those who confessed that they practiced it and were punished – and “traditors,”
those who handed over texts to the authorities. Traditors came to be despised
among rigorous Christians. Roman persecution of Christians may be the main
subject of John’s Book of Revelations.
Much of this book is devoted to the rise of the Roman
emperors Constantine, as a supporter of Christianity, and his younger relative
Julian the Apostate, a champion of paganism. Neither was especially intolerant
of the other religion but they made edicts and reversed previous ones. The
emperors after Julian really Christianized the empire and effectively outlawed
paganism and crushed it after a century or two. Diocletian was a pro-pagan
emperor before Constantine .
The empire was split up into eastern and western portions with shared power and
leaders often deposing leaders and heirs. As in much of ancient empires –
murder was quite common. Constantine was a
general who rose through the ranks to become the sole emperor of Rome and ruled from Constantinople – his new city . He kept some pagan state
traditions. He was not baptized until on his death bed. He sought
reconciliation among Christians. He convened the Council of Nicea. There were
many heresies proclaimed and much sectarian bloodshed among Christian sects for
several centuries. One of the biggest
was the tiff between Arianism and the orthodox Christianity that proclaimed it
a heresy. The Arians put forth the belief that Jesus was the Son of God rather
than God and so was similar to God but not the same as God. This very slight
definitional doctrinal schism resulted in a massive amount of bloodshed and
effectively split the Church. Constantine
sought reconciliation and the Peace of the Church. That was the reason for the
Council of Nicea where feuding factions were brought together. Of course,
extremists continued the feuds afterward. Constantine
had preciously issued the Edict of Milan which outlawed persecution of
Christians and was basically a document announcing religious tolerance in the
tradition of pagan Rome .
With Constantine
the Christian bishops began a relationship with the state and it was the
beginning of a Christianized Roman empire as they were now strong influencers
of government. With Constantine as sole ruler and Christianity as the favored
but not the only religion – it was said to be the beginning of the first
totalitarian state. Constantine
was a warrior as well as a shrewd and often cruel leader. Bishop Eusebius
forged a will (many historians agree) that was found on Constantine at his death. In the will it was
stated that Constantine
was a victim of being poisoned by his half-brothers and he should be avenged.
The baptized sons of Constantine – Constantine II, Constantius II, and Constans,
subsequently carried out a major blood purge. Most members of the family by
blood or marriage, males and females – uncles, cousins, etc – were promptly
arrested and slain. Only two very young boys were spared – Gallus and Julian.
Their older brother was killed. Gallus was eventually lured to Constantinople with a government assignment and slain by
Constantius II. They were taken away to be guarded as they grew up. The sons of
Constantine
would soon enough war among each other until only one remained, Constantius II.
He was the first leader to issue edicts outlawing the practices of paganism
around 341 C.E. Superstition and sacrifices were to be stamped out, idols and
temples destroyed, and texts burned. The tolerance of the Edict of Milan was at
an end. The punishment was death – yet in practice this was not commonplace.
This first gesture was more symbolic than anything. The bloodshed of Arians and
orthodoxy continued and heretics could be tortured. Riots became common in
places like Alexandria .
Paganism was well-tolerated in some places and less so in others.
Julian was eventually summoned to lead an army for
Constantius II who had few loyal family members – since he and his brothers had
killed them all. He was to be watched and ill-equipped. Even so, he performed
his war duties quite well and his courage and willingness to work with his men
was praised. These orphans, Julian and Gallus, were educated according to their
high status. Julian studied Homer and philosophy even though Constantius
specifically forbade it. A trip to Ephesus
brought him to a temple
of Apollo Gaul
and fought Germanic tribes. He was elevated by the people around Paris and proclaimed
Caesar. He would march with an army to confront Constantius II who was off
fighting the Persians. Constantius died of a fever in the Persian conflict so
the two never fought. Julian was declared emperor. Julian was, of course,
bitter about the murder of virtually his whole family. Even though raised
Christian and forced to attend Christian services he was secretly a pagan. He
began to practice openly – offering blood sacrifices with his own blade. He was
officially initiated into several of the mystery religions – of Mithras, and
Isis and the Great Mother. When he made it to Constantinople he purged those
who plotted against him – executing a few as was expected of him – but he
spared many others, giving them mild sentences – fines, house arrest, and
banishment. Julian fancied himself a philosopher-king and did not partake of
the lavish lifestyle expected of emperors. He issued an edict of toleration in
360 that restored paganism as a legal practice. He did not persecute Christians
– his treatment of them was mild even though later Church history would condemn
him for it. Said he:
“I declare by the gods that I do not want the [Christians]
to be put to death, or unjustly beaten, or to suffer anything else.”
He sought to re-establish the old pagan state traditions and
separate Christianity from the state in favor of tolerance of all religions.
His trend toward tolerance and reconciliation of exiled heretics and such, inflamed
Christians, probably by his design, as toleration was seen as a kind of
persecution by the believers in the One True God. It was in later centuries
that Julian was charged with evil deeds but most historians, religious and
secular, have acquitted him of these charges. He did write quite a bit and his
treatise Against the Galilean shows
that he was quite critical of Christians – but in a fair and literary sense. He
also wrote satires – about Caesars, about himself, and involving barbs at
Christians as well. He also composed some tributes to the pagan gods and had a
Mithraeum built. He had visions of creating a more universal paganism – of
restoring order on it and standardizing some practices. These ideas probably
derived from his Christian upbringing and observance of their unity. He sought
such for pagans. He intended his pagan counterrevolution to be nonviolent. He
was, however, guilty of indifference to riots where Christians were persecuted
by newly emboldened pagans. If he did persecute, it was in a veiled way without
executions, laws of intolerance, and condemnation beyond simple literary
arguments. He was not unkind to the Jews. He sought to restore the Temple at Jerusalem .
This may have been another barb at Christians since they considered the Roman
destruction of the temple to be an endorsement of the new temple of Jesus
Both the dynasty of Constantine and Julian’s pagan
restoration died with him. The Roman army elected the officer Jovian to succeed
him. A pagan purge did not come under Jovian as he also issued edicts of
tolerance but other forces gathered such as Men in Black – ascetic desert monks
in Syria and Egypt who
imitated the suffering of Christ. They would gladly fight, mob, riot, maim, and
kill for their cult. Their original violence only to themselves, was later
inflicted gladly on others. They were thugs of Bishop warlords such Theophilus
of Alexandria where they destroyed pagan temples and rioted. In 379 Theodosius
became emperor of Rome .
He was a fanatical Christian and sought destruction of paganism. He was from Spain and some
consider him the true first of the Spanish Inquisitors. Not only pagans but
heretics were tortured to exact confessions and to death. Bishops became
powerful and tolerance slid away. In 390 a Christian mob attacked and burned
the famed library at Alexandria
where the largest suppository of writings of Pagans, Christians, and Jews had
amassed. In 392 Theodosius ordered the destruction of the Serapeum – the great temple of Serapis
– in Alexandria .
Mobs of Christians fought Jews and Pagans – driving many of both away from Alexandria . In 415 was
the brutal mob murder of the distinguished scientist and Neoplatonist
philosopher Hypatia. Here it was the Bishop Theophilus’s successor, Bishop
Cyril, who inflamed the mobs and Men in Black to do the dirty deed. The next
few centuries would find appropriation of pagan traditions into Christianity. A
few outliers of Neoplatonism, country paganism, and Christianized paganism
would remain for several centuries. Other heresies would appear and be
squelched – the Cathars, the Bogomils, the Templars. Islam would come to
dominate the Near East and far beyond with a
new brand of rigorism and conversion by the sword. Crusades would be launched
of holy warriors against holy warriors. Such rigorism and zeal would later find
fertile ground in new totalitarianisms – the Nazi fascists and communism. Both
favored the - one nation, one leader - rule that monotheists had pioneered as
One God-one state. Now we have “martyr operations” of suicide bombers among
brainwashed fanatics. Perhaps one day we will get beyond this as humans.
Great history book!
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