Virus of the Mind: The New Science of the Meme

Book Review: Virus of the Mind: The New Science of the Meme by Richard Brodie

Kindle Edition – (1st published in 1995)

This is a neat and fun book, provocative and fascinating as well. The author is a former Microsoft genius who wrote the first MS Word. Here he can be a bit annoying and over-dramatic at times acting as if conditioning/programming is a newly discovered phenomenon though he does exemplify that there are significant applications of memetics that can be utilized. Memetics is a neat way of looking at conditioning and the propagation of ideas.

Brodie sees memetics as a theory that unifies biology, psychology, and cognitive science. He also suggests that memetics reveals that much of our thought-stuff is culturally programmed rather than self-generated. He describes memetics as a paradigm shift in the way we think about mind science (and this is from 1995 –before the ‘paradigm shift’ idea became an overused meme).

Memes are described as the building blocks of culture and as the building blocks of mind – the programming of the mental computer. Viruses are known from biology, from computing, and as the book shows – from the mind as well. The interplay of memes as mind viruses in the context of evolution and evolutionary psychology is the keynote of the book. Evolutionary psychology deals with the mental biases and mechanisms that evolved to support survival and reproduction, often in the form of psychological switches. Brodie suggests that memetics gives us a key to directing our own evolution, at least psychologically. Since mind viruses are transmitted through communication, they are supported by, or perhaps a consequence of, our freedom of speech. Nowadays with various media the mind viruses can infect us in more technological ways than in the past simply through being replicated and shared by others. Most of us succumb to various mind viruses in one way or another. Another key feature of the book is how to recognize mind virus propagation (which can be involuntary and unintentional) and how to de-program from it. The coercion of commerce via advertising is the most obvious and ubiquitous application of mind viruses with which we are familiar. A key feature of memetics is the spreading of ideas. An example of a useful application of memetics would be spreading ideas that are beneficial to society and the humans that make it up.

Brodie suggests that the incessant pull of competing mind viruses is a major cause of stress but I don’t think I buy that one. Throughout the book he suggests that we are under the power of mind viruses to a greater extent than seems reasonable to me, though people of low intelligence may be more susceptible I suppose. The forces of conditioning and cultural programming have always been around so I think he overdoes it a bit.

In seeing memetics as a ‘new paradigm’ idea, he goes through the stages of reaction to new ideas. These are: 1) complacency/marginalization – this often happens early in the propagation of a new idea. 2) ridicule – usually the result of the prevailing paradigm  being threatened. 3) criticism – a further stage of responding to the threat. 4) acceptance – after enough people embrace the new idea it becomes intellectually and psychologically accepted. As the author points out – the new science of memetics is itself a meme – a way of looking at things: a model, an idea, a concept.

Through a description of a conversation with his Microsoft colleagues, Brodie sort of defines a meme as a chunk of information that gets imitated. He describes the meme as the key to human behavior, though I think he overemphasizes the ultimate importance of memetics a bit. Richard Dawkins in his 1976 book ‘The Selfish Gene’ first coined the term ‘meme’. Brodie notes that in the past one looked at culture through the lens of society or the individual but now one may view it through the lens of the meme. Memetics is simply how memes “interact, replicate, and evolve.” Memetics mirrors genetics as a sort of genetics of the mind. A meme is defined as “the basic unit of cultural transmission, or imitation.” Like genes, memes get passed on. They either survive or perish in the cultural sense. Psychologist Henry Plotkin defines the meme as “the unit of cultural heredity analogous to the gene. It is the internal representation of knowledge.” As a computer analogy memes can be seen as the (psychological) software component while genes can be seen as the (biological) hardware component. Brodie states that: “…memes are to a human’s behavior what genes are to our bodies: internal representations of knowledge that result in outward effects on the world.” Cognitive scientist and philosopher Daniel Dennet defines a meme as “… the kind of complex idea that forms itself into a distinct memorable unit. It is spread by vehicles that are physical manifestations of the meme.” An example of a meme-carrying vehicle would be TV advertising. Brodie then gives his own definition of a meme based on Dawkins’ definition: “A meme is a unit of information in a mind whose existence influences events such that more copies of itself get created in other minds.” He says a meme about memes is a metameme – so that the study of memes is a metameme. He points out that memetics is a model of mind and behavior, just as there are biological and psychological models, and does not replace or invalidate them. It is just another way of looking at things. All of our labels for things are memes rather than truth.

Memes may be beneficial or detrimental but successful memes are those that are good at spreading, whether for good or ill. Brodie defines a mind virus as something that infects people with memes and those people infect others – basically a spreadable idea or chunk of cultural association. Forces affecting our behavior can generally be divided into instincts (genetic programming that is often outdated) and mental programming.

Brodie divides memes into three general classes: 1) distinction-memes - we label things by breaking them into parts and pieces. We name things to distinguish them from other things. We use concepts (memes) to distinguish things and ideas. Our programming depends on how we label/name/categorize/distinguish things. Advertisers seek to pass on distinction-memes that result in a preference for their product. Money is a distinction-meme where we assign value to coins and pieces of paper. 2) strategy-memes – these are basically just ‘rules-of thumb’. Beliefs about cause and effect of behaviors support strategy-memes. Successful strategies are very often passed along and further replicated. 3) association-memes – these are memes that link other memes/concepts together. Our attitudes and opinions are often a result of association-memes. Pavlov’s classical conditioning experiment with his dog is an example. These are our inventories of basic stimulus-response triggers. The three types of memes described above make up the bulk of how we learn. Peer pressure and in-group seeking are ways that help replicate programming. Even animals can distinguish, strategize, and associate and for us this becomes the basis of learning and communication.

Expectations and “self-fulfilling prophecies” are one way our memes affect us, thus we say that we can be programmed for success or failure. Distinction-memes may affect how we perceive reality, since they can act as ‘perceptual filters’ allowing us to notice things that we recognize because we have labels for them. This may be a factor in ‘synchronicity’ as well. Advertisers want us to notice things so they play on our memetic programming so that we will notice and associate pleasant memes with their products. He makes the point (that many of us already know) that truth depends on context and by getting caught up in truth/dogma/fixed beliefs we are more easily controlled.  Our memetic programming can influence our predictability.

Conceptually, viruses occur in three different venues: biology, computers, and the mind (as memes). There are differences but the general behavior is the same. Both biological and computer viruses are hard to cure. Mind viruses can be either detrimental or beneficial and the process of ‘curing’ would presumably involve de-conditioning regarding the detrimental ones and re-conditioning with beneficial ones – and I might add here that keeping an open-mind and less rigid beliefs may be a way to keep from being too conditioned in any way, but more flexible. Biological viruses commandeer the copying equipment of cells in order to copy the virus. Replication is a key feature of viruses of all kinds. Brodie uses the word virus “to refer to things that penetrate, copy, possibly issue instructions, and spread.” This need not be something alive.

Brodie distinguishes between cultural viruses that arise spontaneously and designer viruses that are crafted by humans. He suggests viewing culture as a ‘meme-pool’. Genes and memes are both excellent replicators, able to continue to exist and able to be organized enough to overcome the randomizing effects of entropy. He describes evolution as a creative and complexifying force and entropy as a destructive a simplifying force. Survival of the fittest essentially means survival of that which is best at replicating. The selfish gene self-replicates. Fitness really refers to the likelihood of being copied. He prefers the phrase ‘abundance of the fittest.’ Genes are bundles of DNA that function mainly to replicate. This is often referred to as our genetic programming. Brodie discusses evolution vs. engineering and concludes that there was no designing involved. He also mentions the engineer’s kluge, which refers to a part not particularly suited to its purpose. This is used in terms of old and outdated programs that organisms get stuck with. He also attributes junk DNA as kluging but more recent evidence suggests other uses for much of it – such as a complex network of regulatory switches. Bundles of DNA are selected and copied so that the organism can survive and reproduce (copy itself).

“Once our brains evolved to the point where we could receive, store, modify, and communicate ideas, there suddenly appeared a new environment that had the two characteristics needed for evolution: copying and innovating.”

Memetic evolution occurs much faster than genetic evolution. A concept of a ‘selfish meme’ that exists primarily as a means to copy itself is just as useful as the selfish gene concept. In a sense, memes are concerned with the evolution of ideas, culture, and society. Like genes, memes survive because they are good at spreading.  

Memetics is really a function of conceptualization and language. Information about food, danger, and sex is important to survival and so is the ability to communicate that information. We preferentially pay attention to food, danger, and sex for this reason. In terms of memes these are our primary buttons that can be manipulated. Memes involving them spread the fastest. He gives the five ‘original’ memes as: 1) crisis – spread fear = save lives 2) mission – communicating a mission such as – build a shelter, fight an enemy, find food – has survival value 3) problem – identifying a problem as a problem such as – lack of food, competition for mates – allowed better abilities to survive 4) danger – knowledge of predators and poisons enhanced survivability 5) opportunity – ability to take advantage of opportunities for food and mating aids evolution. The buttons for danger, food, and sex are the feelings anger, fear (fight or flight), hunger, and lust are our primary instinctual buttons – things we are hard-wired to pay attention to. Next, he gives five second-order buttons/drives: 1) belonging – these memes offer an evolutionary advantage through such things as safety in numbers, economies of scale, and potential for more mates. 2) distinguishing yourself – can lead to more food and more mates 3) caring -  ensures survivability of offspring and group mates 4) approval – ability to be approved by the group (and oneself) confers advantages 5) obeying authority – resisting authority could get on killed.

In addition to the survival memes he mentions the proliferation of six meme-spreading memes due to the ‘replicate and spread’ functions of memes: 1) tradition – a strategy-meme to continue what was done in the past. It will likely be popular and known so easier to replicate. Convenient to repeat and spread 2) evangelism – this is the main ‘spread this meme’ meme. It is often combined with a mission meme 3) faith – blind belief is resistant to attack especially if combined with the evangelism meme 4) skepticism – the opposite of faith but with a similar effect on the mind. A skeptic can be just as resistant to new ideas as one who is faithful to another idea 5) familiarity – plays on pre-existing distinction-memes so they are more recognizable 6) making sense – simpler to understand = simpler to pass on.

The next section is a primer of sex through the lens of evolutionary psychology. Brodie notes that memetic tendencies are guided by genetic tendencies which evolved around sex.  He gives an odd evolutionary explanation for hypocrisy as outwardly following sexual mores and prohibitions while secretly engaging in mating when an opportunity arises thereby passing on genes when the competition is held back by the mores – so spreading antisex memes and secretly and selfishly ignoring them may be a mating strategy! He notes that “access to sex is the driving force behind many aspects of culture.” He gives sexual memes as: 1) power – powerful men tend to get more sexual opportunity 2) dominance – men being higher in the hierarchy could access sex without a fight 3) window of opportunity – seizing opportunities improved reproductive fitness among men but among women patience achieved the same effect. Advertising that wants us to “act now” exploits this meme 4) security – women preferred opportunities for security as it led to survival of offspring 5) commitment - women prefer commitment since it fosters a stable upbringing of offspring while males tended to evolve to seek multiple mates – this may be exploited as “brand loyalty” memes 6) investment – women pay attention to men who invest their own attention in the woman (and offspring) while a woman’s investment as a mother is a given. Our sex-drive is about reproduction but since then we figured out that we can have sex without having babies. Those that reproduce will make future babies and pass on their genetic tendencies. Religions that forbid birth control will pass on more genes. Are those that do not reproduce working to make future life better for the offspring of those who do? Good question. 

Forbidden behaviors may play on our attention to danger. Successful reproduction requires safety and fearing dangers has a tendency to support safety. But fears change. Some are more rational than others. Brodie states that:

“Human fear is generated by “hardware” instincts viewing life through memetic “software” programming.”

Showing of fear as a way of communicating danger is an evolutionary adaptation. Over-reaction to fear can be counter-productive so the less drastic ‘anxiety’ developed as a readying mechanism. Fearing for our kin became important as well and Brodie sees this as the roots of altruism. It does seem logical that altruism developed from kin altruism and parental instincts. He lists some button-pushing memes related to altruism: 1) helping children – this is instinctual and much manipulated 2) birds of a feather – the idea of looking out for clan-mates 3) racism – suspicion and disdain of ‘other’, usually a genetic other 4) elitism – the idea that feeling one deserves more than others will lead to better survivability.

Regarding the psychology of gambling Brodie lists some gambler’s instincts that are often exploited as memes: 1) overvaluing a longshot – he suggests that this urge is based on low-risk high-reward activity such as searching for food though in gambling the odds are abysmal 2) cheap insurance – another low-risk high-reward thing in pre-historic life (example – camouflaging one’s cave entrance) but statistically poor in gambling, yet it remains intuitively appealing and much exploited 3) playing the streaks – attributing predictability to events that are really random 4) being stingy when you’re down, generous when you’re up – conserving during scarcity and lavishing during abundance is not statistically superior 5) playing a hunch – new strategies and creative approaches are only occasionally successful. Memes tend to exploit all these tendencies.

Urban legends and erroneous ‘common wisdom’ is another interesting topic group. These types of scams and hoaxes seem to be hard to kill off. The popularity of superstitions can also be attributed to the ‘cheap insurance’ meme where heeding them is protective. Humans tend to heed and spread superstitions so they are common memes. Most of these revolve around fear exploitation.

Next he goes through three common ways we are infected with memes: 1) conditioning – programming by repetition. This is simply learning through memorization, whether self-induced or pushed on us. Distinction-memes are developed this way as are things we notice. In advertising conditioning often takes the form of association-memes. Operant conditioning utilizes strategy-memes that are tied to reward and punishment 2) cognitive dissonance – he describes this as creating high pressure and resolving it and sees it as the m.o. of high-pressure sales techniques. Theses memes tend to create conflict with previous memes such as caution-memes. Creating the conflict makes it beg to be resolved which is what the new meme does. The choice is to “buy in” or “bail out” and many people buy irrationally in this manner. Other examples of exploitation of cognitive dissonance include fraternity hazings, bootcamp, and some religious or spiritual disciplines. These involve demonstrations of loyalty through tests. This is how prisoners of war have been programmed to be obedient to their captors/torturers. Strategic reward-withholding in operant conditioning creates this cognitive dissonance and may result in stronger bonds, stronger memes, and stronger programming. 3) Trojan horses – this is hooking one with a strong meme and then inserting other memes to infect one with. Using sex, danger, crises, and helping children to sell things is an example. Politicians also use bundling techniques like this. It is a matter of the questionable riding on the acceptable. Neuro-linguistic programming (NLP) emphasizes these techniques. The NLP technique of ‘anchoring and embedding ’ or ‘framing with gestures’ is a similar technique. Salespeople influence behavior through such means. Salespeople will also rely on creating rapport – ie. trying to be your buddy and utilize the NLP technique of ‘mirroring’ which means imitating one’s gestures. Con artists play ‘confidence games’ where they appear to trust you and induce you to reciprocate that apparent trust. The goal is to bypass your skepticism.

Interestingly he points out that the idea that there is a right way to spell words is just a cultural meme. I suppose the same could be said for pronunciation. These are agreed upon conventions to enhance communication rather than truth. He says this is part of the ‘be consistent’ meme that is often co-opted for exploitation.

Evangelism, ie. intentionally ‘spreading the word’, is a key way memes are passed out.  Cultural viruses are the ones that evolve on their own and become self-perpetuating while designer viruses are intentionally propagated according to Brodie’s definition. Advertisers and TV execs design viruses to push our buttons, particularly the danger, food, and sex buttons but some of the others mentioned as well. Here is an interesting observation relevant to today’s social networking:

“Cynics perennially ask why life and culture, and television in particular {I add facebook here}, seem to be filling up with valueless and demeaning junk rather than artistic and thoughtful content. The answer is, of course, that the valueless and demeaning junk is a better replicator.”

Bias and sensationalism in journalism and media is a way to get attention and ratings. Perhaps this is why headlines are often misleading – they draw us in so that we will read the story. Of course, there is the op-ed section set aside for biased views but most everyone has biases. Simply having a bias tends to urge one to want to spread it. The media is biased toward making newsworthy news – news that pushes our buttons. Media also has a bias toward the offbeat and unusual. News can spread mass fear by pushing our danger buttons. Nowadays we have news and media addiction due to the desire to interact with these button-pushing memes that excite.

Brodie provides an interesting take on conspiracy theories. He says they derive from our desire to make sense of things. People tend to project conscious intent onto things that developed without it and spread simply because they have spreadable memes.

He also mentions “panhandling” strategies as meme-intensive. ‘Be aggressive’, hold a sign saying “will work for food”, or beg with children or animals – have been successful strategies. Those ‘professional beggars’ who can make a living out of it pretty much keep out the people that really need help but are not skilled at begging. Brodie also tears into the memetics of government, politics, and the black market. Lobbyists transmit memes to legislators through repetition. Legislators (and perhaps most people) have more of a tendency to listen to those that contribute to their success. Voter appeal = having good memes.

Religion can utilize the ‘cheap insurance’ button. Dogma as truth is big problem around the world. Brodie suggests that religion evolved out of our need for problem-solving. As we were able to solve some of our issues with danger, food, and sex, other questions arose – metaphysical questions. These more difficult questions led to early humans venturing guesses about them. Interestingly, he sees most religion as a cultural virus that evolved without conscious intent due to the development of more effective memes, ie. spreadable dogmas. The one True meme plays on our problem-solving tendencies to solve a problem absolutely. He lists a group of memes often exploited by religion: tradition – this is replicability at its finest, a very powerful meme in religion, literalism, beliefs, and systems of thought. 2) heresy – this is the flip-side of tradition, a distinction-meme that then leads to associate-memes of the consequences of heresy. 3) evangelism – this is a meme that tends to make the religion successful simply because it is spreadable 4) making sense – things that make sense are easy to pass on. Ideas that are stated simply and clearly make more sense. 5) repetition – rituals are full of repetition which acclimates us to the worldview and makes us comfortable with it. 6) security – religions exploit fear. False enemies abound. God will protect you. 7) crisis – cults utilize this imminent danger meme most effectively. 8) food – feasts and even fasts can attract adherents. 9) sex – long-exploited by religions as a control mechanism. 9) problem – exploited by the more spiritual (less religious) sects like Zen and Taoism where the problem-solving mechanism is worked through a lifetime of practice 10) dominance – the lure of hierarchy in levels and degrees pulls some people in. This is true of religions, fraternal orders, occultism, and self-help schemes. 11) belonging – people like to belong to a group, an exploitable thing. Religions give people comfort and a feeling of purpose in their lives. Brodie calls this ‘having a purpose’ meme of the self-fulfilling prophecy type. Of course, this is at a cost to their rationalism and this tends to pain the atheists and agnostics who have to tolerate them. Faith is a trade-off. People sell their souls to God, who might just be the Devil in disguise! Just a thought! But faith and common belief unites people in the political and societal sense so there have been benefits as well.

In the section about designer viruses he predicts (in 1995) that the bulk of our culture will be composed of designer viruses. I don’t think that this has happened, at least for me but perhaps they have made some headway. With things like facebook we are passing memes constantly. With this bombardment of memes I am guessing that some people are getting more infectable and others less infectable. I do think the overall effect will be that we will become less infectable – at least with the more obvious ruses. However, the gullibility of humans can sometimes be baffling. He does mention increasing competition in the “mind war” and that does seem to be happening. He goes through profit-motivated viruses like Ponzi schemes, pyramid schemes, and multi-level marketing. In describing power-viruses he uses the example of a cult, where two of the most important memes are: commitment to mission and consequences of leaving. When these two conditions are combined with evangelism people can control others (who are inclined to be controlled). He shows that mega-corporations also employ these strategies albeit on a lesser scale. Things like a “mission statement” give employees something to hold onto which is usually not a bad thing. Others things referred to as ‘golden handcuffs’ usually in the form of stock-options available through time are designed to keep people from leaving. Cognitive dissonance in the form of “initiation ordeals” may also be used by corporations, though again on a lesser scale than fraternity hazings and military ordeals. Paying ones dues on low end of the totem pole as they say, may be a form of this.

There is a section about – disinfection – or de-programming. He gives what he describes as two ethical question: “What memes should I program myself with?” and “What memes should I spread?” I think these questions are rather philosophical as well. People do like to have a purpose, a will, a destiny of sorts to follow or practice. Brodie describes Zen as a method of de-virusing, which it can well be. De-condition is a technique in psychology as well as in various esoteric and spiritual traditions. I think that contemplative and introspective practices in general teach people to pay attention to there programming or as I used to like to say it – “pay attention to what you pay attention to.”

Brodie mentions an idea, interesting but speculative – the Learning Pyramid – where one outgrows one’s old belief system and moves up to the next level toward the apex. He describes Level 1 as genetic programming and Level 2 as knowledge that allows us to control and manipulate some of that programming. He describes Level 3 dealing with one’s personal programming and purpose – the description sounds a bit like Crowley’s notion of “finding and doing your True Will”. Regarding what memes to spread may also have to do with one’s purpose. Regarding the education of children – he refers to our education system as one where copying memes is emphasized. Rather than telling children what to think one might emphasize letting them thing for themselves. We have done this with our “unschooled” son who is now in college. How children are programmed is an important issue and one not easily solved as every cultural variation wants to pass on their memes. Personally I think it is of vast importance that keeping an open mind be emphasized.

Nice bibliography at the end split into subjects.

 

 

 

Green Yoga

Green Yoga  by Georg Feuerstein and Brenda Feuerstein (Traditional Yoga Studies 2007)

Generally speaking this was a good book with useful info, facts, and stats. Georg Feuerstein the yoga scholar recently passed away to the detriment of yoga knowledge. Here he and his wife tackled yoga and green philosophy with sometimes mixed results in my opinion. The book is more about environmentalism than yoga and ties the two together on several points. The bibliography is good and there is some information that is not generally well-known. One aspect of the book that I found annoying– it seemed a bit anti-American. Georg was German but moved to Canada – so it is generally pro-Canada. Even so there are specific complaints against Canadian policies as well such as the spraying of the nerve toxin Malathion for ‘nuisance mosquito control’ which also kills off predators of mosquitos such as frogs, bats, and songbirds.

An underlying premise of the book is the dire situation of the catastrophic destruction of the environment being wrought by industrial civilization and population growth. The authors suggest that the so-called Sixth Mass Extinction is being accelerated by human activities as species disappear every day. The alarmist tone in the book sees the situation as a global crisis which it may well be. The Feuersteins compare yoga to deep ecology in that both advocate reverence for all life forms. They equate ‘greenness’ with spiritual maturity in that it takes a certain maturity to develop holistic –‘big picture’ views. Since contemporary yoga (sometimes referred to as Modern Postural Yoga) involves mindful caring for the body it can be related to mindful care of the mind and of the earth. The dire situation is presented here in the form of statistics and scientific predictions. The bottom line of the book is the suggestions of lifestyle changes one may implement in order to help alleviate the problems. As for us I think we have implemented nearly 90% of the suggested changes – but I am rather doubtful that the majority will do so without being forced in some way as people tend to be resistant even to common sense in the light of political and religious convictions. Occasionally in the book there appears a ‘greener-than-thou’ tone that I think we all have to watch out for. While there is much evidence to suggest that lifestyle changes are necessary in order to protect the environment it is not evident to everyone and we all contribute to the destruction in various ways – even if we are green. The authors mention the yogic suggestions to eat a pure diet, drink pure water, and to purify one’s thoughts as a yoga morality that promotes purification. This would also imply promoting the purity of the environment. Purity in yoga may be seen in terms of the old idea of the three gunas, or modes of material existence – tamas, rajas, and sattva. All matter may be seen as containing a proportion of these three qualities. Tamas is the principal of veiling, inertia, darkness, heaviness, rest. Rajas is the principle of dynamism, activity, motion. Sattva is the principle of lucidity, light, purity, revealing. One goal of spirituality in this model is to become more revealed, more light/lucid, more pure, more sattva – so that “sattvification” is synonymous with purification. Part of being mindful in the modern world should include being mindful of the effects of one’s actions on the environment and the practice of keeping well-informed of environmental impact by keeping up to date on things and continually educating oneself on environmental impacts. I might also add that one should strive to remain as unbiased as possible. One should be aware of what one buys, consumes, uses, and discards and how those things affect the environment. This is simply our responsibility as modern humans.

The authors point out that the sages of the early Upanishads emphasized the ‘inner sacrifice’ as renunciation of the world, over the ‘external sacrifices’ of the Vedic Brahmin priests. These forest ascetics also called this the self-sacrifice of the ‘ego-reflex.’ The Bhagavad Gita favored ‘karma yoga’ – the yoga of performing duty actions without attachment - over extremist renunciation asceticism. Probably for this reason the Gita became beloved by the masses. Here Krishna states that we always do actions so that ‘action transcendence’ is preferable to renunciation in solitude. The authors see this karma yoga as a spiritual activism and suggest environmental activism as a continuation of it. Although it does not become clear till the end of the book, I think what they refer to as ‘environmental activism’ is primarily the making of lifestyle changes rather than the intense vocal and protest activism usually seen as ‘activism.’ Two – Ethical Pillars of Green Yoga – are proposed. The first is loka-samgraha which can be translated as ‘world maintenance’, ‘world welfare’ or ‘world guidance’. This term only appears in the Bhagavad Gita and is not well explained. The authors see it as karma yoga, as “working for the material, social, moral, and spiritual benefit of the whole world.” The second pillar is the Bodhisaatva Ideal expressed in Buddhist philosophy which is to work ceaselessly for the benefit of all sentient beings. They compare this to sattvification. When one focuses on the happiness of others the ego-grasping tendency is weakened.

The section on cosmology and interconnectedness was very good. Here we encounter the idea that since the universe is thought to have expanded from a point, a singularity – then at one time we were all much closer together and more intimate in the spatial sense. This idea may inform things like quantum entanglement and ecology as the study of relationships within a system, an ecosystem. The idea of interconnectedness was first noted in the Vedic Hymn to Man, the Purusha-Sukta where the universe is said to emanate from the Primordial Man and we all retain the potential of the Primordial Man, the universe, within ourselves. The Web of Life (Ecosystems) and the Vedantic idea of the “Thread–Self” (sutra- atman), the stretched out thread that weaves the universe, relate the same ideas of interconnectivity and interdependence. In the Upanishads there is the notion of “food mysticism” as the authors call it. This is simply the observation that all life necessarily consumes other life as food. This is the food chain. We eat. We are ultimately food for others. Mystical attainment, or Samadhi, often involves the realization of oneness with the universe. This is a realization of interconnectivity and interdependence to the point of union with the object of contemplation.  

Next a distinction seems to be made between the spirituality of yoga philosophy and the materialistic view, which is a bit inexplicably linked to secular humanism. A suggestion is made that interconnectivity beyond the material world is only possible in a spiritual view. I disagree as a psychological view also deals with hidden connectivity and is not inherently spiritual. This supposed distinction is used to explain why materialists might be more apt to disregard interconnectivity – meaning they would be more apt to deny environmental impact and proper treatment of animals. While this may be statistically true in some ways – I don’t know – I think it is a bit of a dangerous assumption to tie philosophical views as such to what I see more as morality (in the case of animals) and social responsibility (in the case of the environment). In other words I do not think reverence for life needs to be based around any ideological framework – I think it can simply be intuitive.

In discussing overtaxing the environment we are confronted with population growth being ultimately unsustainable. At some point the growth will have to slow. Related problems are overconsumption such as overfishing and what they call consumption high in the food chian – which refers to eating large animals raised as livestock which is taxing in terms of energy, land, and environment, compared to plant foods. Though the arguments tend to be unpopular, it is well known that raising livestock for meat is immensely destructive to the environment. Massive amounts of land are used up compared to raising nutritionally comparable plant-based nutrition. Massive amounts of food are grown to feed the animals. Massive amounts of water are used. There are massive amounts of greenhouse gases emitted from livestock (roughly 18% of all emissions). Other dangerous gases such as ammonia are emitted as well. Food grown for livestock increases pesticide use. Erosion and runoff and water pollution from hog farms and manure ponds are also big problems. Not to mention all that there is also the horrific problem of the cruelty and violence of factory farms. Personally I think the evidence is rather clear that adopting a vegetarian or vegan lifestyle is one of the easiest and most effective ways to help the planet, improve the lives of animals, and contribute to sanity. I would recommend it to anyone.

The next sections deal with the various forms of pollution on the planet. Water pollution in the oceans, rivers, and lakes is detailed first. The overuse of plastic, the problem of trash heaps in the oceans, shipping waste, chemical and oil spills are all documented. Apparently shipping is also responsible for much air pollution and the authors note the particularly enhanced destruction caused by large cruise ships – those made for human enjoyment and excesses. Apparently, human rights abuses have also been well documented on employees of cruise ship companies. Constructing large dams for hydro-power has been a concern around the world as it displaces people, often indigenous people, as well as animals, plants, and it floods usable land. However, I think there are trade-offs there where in some cases it may be a better overall choice than not – though I am just speculating here. Human sewage and industrial runoff are the largest pollution sources of rivers. Pesticide runoff and animal waste are likely not far behind. Of course, fossil fuels are responsible for much pollution as well including acid rain from coal,  particulate matter from coal, and greenhouse gases from oil and gas combustion. Burial of extremely dangerous nuclear waste residue is always a risk. Much radioactive waste has also been dumped in the oceans in the past but this presumably does not happen any more. Access to clean water is an issue in many parts of the world as well as overuse of existing water sources and groundwater aquifers. Privatization of water – where corporations have bought up water rights from states and municipalities has created a lot of political problems in various regions – as water access and quality is often a regional issue. Water-borne infectious diseases are the biggest water pollution problem in Third World countries and kill many people there. Lack of sanitation and water purification is actually the biggest problem. Even so, overly chlorinated water and water run through lead pipes (as in older American homes) also has its own sets of health problems. Adding the known toxin – fluoride – to drinking water in order to prevent tooth decay is also quite problematic. One has to work a bit to give oneself a supply of mostly untainted water.

Over-farming, over-fertilization, and deforestation are other problems explored. These all deplete the productiveness of the soil and are characteristic of modern farming methods. Organic farming methods have been gradually making headway throughout the world and the dangers of biotech crops (GMOs) are gradually coming to the fore. Buying organic both supports organic farming methods and boycotts GMOs. GMOs also threaten “food sovereignty”, can bankrupt Third World farmers, increase pesticide and chemical fertilizer use and dependency, can lead to “superweeds” and “superpests” and have unknown effects on health. Most deforested land ends up being used for livestock grazing and livestock feed plots. Loss of the world’s forests is a big issue as forests are huge carbon sinks that can potentially keep CO2 out of the atmosphere. Urban sprawl is another issue brought up and the excessive use of travel. Buying and eating local is much encouraged in green circles. Landfills and the big business of waste transport are also addressed. Statistics are given for all these things that have environmental impact. The importance of recycling is emphasized and some good news is that recycling rates have been slowly increasing.

Mining impacts and pollution are explored. Mineral, uranium, gravel, and coal mines all produce toxic waste and deform and impact land. Erosion and air/water pollution are also big problems. Apparently, illegal logging is a big problem in many parts of the world and is a significant depleter of forest beyond that which is sanctioned. In places like Indonesia and Brazil this is a huge problem.

The authors don’t particularly like the idea of “carbon offsetting” and prefer the idea of simplifying one’s lifestyle. I tend to agree although this is not easy for everyone and for some that is the best they can do and we should be OK with that for now as it is a conscious beginning. Here again we could get into the “greener-than-thou” mindset.

Another huge problem is simply waste and inefficiency. 500 million wooden pallets are used to transport goods – this makes up about 40% of all wood products according to an article my son read – and most (about 2/3) are disposed in landfills. This is usable wood, often hardwood such as oak and should not be wasted. Plastic grocery bags and disposable chopsticks are also examples of mass waste. Lack of recycling usable products such as the wooden pallets is an example of lack of efficiency.

Air pollution is next examined. Greenhouse gases, dangerous particulate matter, and modern problems such as indoor air pollution are examined. Household and construction chemicals can pervade the indoor air in many houses and buildings. Due to smog and particulates urban air is much more toxic than rural air. The WHO estimates that 1.6 million people die a year from indoor air pollution. Wood, coal, and dung fires can create much indoor particulate pollution in poorer parts of the world.  Diesel-powered bus fleets, ozone, sulfur dioxide, nitrous oxides, and other particulate matter are big problems in cities around the world and create many health problems. Hog farming is a big producer of air pollution in some areas. Airborne pesticides can also be a dangerous source.

Global warming/climate change and recently discovered “global dimming” – where particulate matter in the sky particularly from massive jet travel dims the light of the sun and helps increase overall temps – although I am not sure how much effect this really has as it has only been documented since the September 11 tragedy after air travel was suspended for a few days. Air travel is also a major source of air pollution. Although global warming is well documented it is less clear how it will play out. There are various scenarios, some more dire than others. It is debatable whether we are headed for certain biosphere collapse and if so when it will occur. The evidence does suggest that we should act by simplifying our lifestyles, decreasing waste and extravagance, becoming more efficient, and implementing green strategies in our lives.

The last part of the book is about Green Yoga Activism. This consists of simple suggestions that we can do to decrease our carbon footprints and our environmental impacts. Although there are many sources of such information it does not hurt to keep educated, to remind ourselves to keep our commitments to these strategies, and to know them well enough to pass them on to others. Reduce/reuse/recycle, avoid excessive packaging, use Energy Star appliances, conserve water, don’t over-heat or over-cool, wash clothes with cold water, dry clothes on a rack or outdoors if possible, buy and eat local, turn off and unplug appliances, compost, avoid fast food, eat vegetarian or vegan as much as possible, avoid plastic bags, plant trees, use green power if possible, avoid plastic water bottles, avoid excessive transportation, use compact fluorescent light bulbs, use eco cleaning products, invest with socially and environmentally responsible investments, consider driving a hybrid, go paperless as much as possible, grow some of your own food, and support public libraries. Many of these things are easy enough. Various organizations, websites, documentaries, and a good bibliography is given as well.

The authors suggest that yoga practitioners have a special responsibility to be green as part of living and promoting a holistic and healthy lifestyle for themselves and those around them.

The Green Man: Spirit of Nature

Book Review: The Green Man: Spirit of Nature by John Matthews (Red Wheel/Weiser 2002)

This is a small but wonderful and well-illustrated book about the archetype of the Green Man from ancient and medieval times. It is well written and evocative. The Green Man, of course, represents the natural world and our relationship to it. Certainly ancient observations of green vegetative growth suggested an animating force and this force became only semi-anthropomorphized as the Green Man motif. The Green man is often depicted as a face bedecked with leaves and appears often carved into the outsides of European churches and buildings.

The Green Man is the animating force of the forests that cover the earth. Of course, sacred trees exist in many cultures as well as the World Tree that is a representation of all the ‘planes’ or realms where beings live. The forest gods predate the agricultural gods and are likely precursors to them as well.

The author discusses the Sumerian Enkidu as an early representation of the Green Man from the Epic of Gigamesh. Leaf-mask carvings are present there in Babylonian times. Another version is the dying-and-rising god Attis from the Near East Mediterranean who was associated with a sacred pine tree. Probably the most famous of the vegetation gods is the Egyptian Osiris, as a seasonal grain god. The dying-and-rising god motif often represents agriculture but can also represent recurring vegetation from the wild. In Egypt the color green was sacred and there was a saying, “do green things” which referred to the good and the wholesome. Conversely, “doing red things” referred to the unwholesome. This is probably in response to the fertility of the earth around the Nile which changes drastically from black earth near the river and its floodplain which fosters the green growth, and the infertile red earth beyond where everything burns up, dries up, and dies. Osiris is associated with the black and the green while his sometimes enemy Set of the desert is Red. The resurrection of the god and the regeneration of vegetation are both part of the mythos.

Pan is a major deity of nature. He is the all, the universal force of nature, and the wild man of the woods who haunts the lonely and secluded places of nature. He is also untamable and uncontrollable. Dionysus is another of the old wild gods of nature. He is associated with agriculture and of course viticulture as well. He is credited with carrying the magic of the vine and its intoxicating essence to new lands - not only the wild essence of the wine, but of the unruly growth of plants and forest that are also hard to tame and control.

Arabic and Islamic legends depict green as the color of rebirth and of paradise itself. The Koran has references to “Al-Khidir” or “the Green One” probably derived from an ancient vegetation cult but later described as a guide to both Moses and Alexander the Great.

Krisna, with blue skin, and forest-dwelling Rama, with dark-green skin, may be Eastern forms of the Green Man as both are lords of trees and nature.

“Some of the oldest concrete images of the Green Man date from the 2^nd century CE, in an area once part of the vast Mesopotamian Empire but by then ruled over by the Romans.” These were male masks with leaves often at the base of fountains and temple columns. This form on architecture would remain to grace buildings of Europe as a remnant of living in the green for those living in the stone edifices. He is pagan remnant on Christian churches. Even in those times people were dependent on the harvest as food preservation and freezing had not yet come about. So influencing the harvest magically was still practiced and honoring the Green Man was one way of doing it.

In terms of the year, the Green Man appears with the greening and the month of May. He is venerated at Midsummer too. He was King of the Winter Wood as well. As King of the Wood the rites of Rex Nemorensis reach back in time to rites where the Year King ruled for a year and then was sacrificed. Human sacrificial traditions of this sort are well documented. In some cases the slayer takes over as king for the next year and is slain as the cycle went on. In other versions a king is slain during a bad harvest year. Another aspect of the Year King is the battle of the Summer King and the Winter King for the Spring Maiden.

The author notes several mythic cycles that refer to the battle for the year. Although he doesn’t mention it the battle of the Oak King and Holly King is one such myth often portrayed in Wiccan and pagan circles. The mythic features of the story of Robin Hood and his Merry Men suggest him as a 12^th century representation of the Green Man and King of the Wood. He died like a Year King and his lover Marion was much as the Queen of the May. A related Green Man motif is that of Robin Goodfellow, the trickster also known as the fairy Puck from Shakespeare’s A Midsummer Night’s Dream. The author mentions the remnants of this trickster spirit of the woods in the Bucca of Britain and the Bosgou of North-west Spain.

The Arthurian tale of the Green Knight is another Green Man myth. The 14^th century poem Sir Gawain and the Green Knight is the best known version. The Green Man in knight form challenges anyone to exchange blows with him – first the challenger may give him a blow but must accept a blow in return. Gawain faces the giant Knight and uses the knight’s own axe to cut off his head. The Green Knight then holds his own head aloft as it speaks – saying that Gawain should return to the Green Chapel in a year’s time to receive his return blow. Gawain travels to look for the Green Chapel and is given shelter by Sir Bercilak and Lady Bercilak. Gawain is repeatedly tested by Lady Bercilak and passes except that he accepted a small talisman of protection from her. It turns out that Sir Bercilak is none other than the Green Knight who was put under a spell by the “Goddess Morgane.” Sir Bercilak is satisfied with nicking Gawain’s neck and the matter is settled. Lady Bercilak can be seen as the Spring Maiden.

Another Green Man manifestation is the sometimes comical Jack-in-the-Green. He is typically a man bedecked with leaves and branches, appearing sometimes as a moving bush or tree. I have donned this form myself a time or two. A similar manifestation is that of the Wildman in the Green, often depicted with a club or uprooted tree and like the Sumerian hero Enkidu, representative of untamed nature. Matthews goes on to describe some aspects of springtime Morris Dancing possibly related to the Green Jack traditions.

There is a section discussing – The Return of the Green Man – which mentions popular media of Green Man-like themes and the interest in “back to nature” and “green living” as newfangled aspects of the Green Man mythos. Rediscovering a more symbiotic and healthy relationship with the green world is important as our industrial society has degraded the environment.

The author gives suggestions of how to celebrate the Green Man as garden spirit, office mascot, a presence of nature at rather unnatural places like hospitals, in ceremonies of beginnings and rededication, as guardian of animals, and in gift giving. I like his idea of placing an image of the Green Man in a pet cemetery as a guardian. Also given is a nice Walking Meditation preferably among trees where one takes in the power of nature through mindful awareness and explores without expectations.

The last section is about places where there are images of the Green Man, especially in Europe but also in other places around the world. One such manifestation is known as Kirtimukha in India and Borneo where he is a spirit of good luck and fertility and adorns many Jain temples in India. Some other mentions are in the Middle East and Tunisia where faces in leaves are found in very old art and in some of the Aztec depictions in Mexico. He lists many exact places throughout Europe as well as festivals where one might find Green Man themes.

Really cool book with great pictures. Small, but a nice one for the whole family to peruse. This is the 2nd book I have read and reviewed by John Matthews (and Kaitlyn Matthews). Their work on Celtic mythic themes is very good.

 

  

 

 

 

Naturalistic Occultism: An Introduction to Scientific Illuminism

Book Review: Naturalistic Occultism: An Introduction to Scientific Illuminism

by IAO 131 (LuLu 2^nd edition 2012 -1st edition 2009)

I think that this is an excellent and important book that addresses some relevant issues and clears a path to a way of thinking about phenomena that hovers on and beyond the limits of scientific analysis.

The term ‘Scientific Illuminism’ was coined by Aleister Crowley in describing his Equinox publications where he extolled it as “The Method of Science, The Aim of Religion.” This book is an important continuation along this path. The term ‘Naturalistic Occultism’ is basically synonymous with Scientific Illuminism and suggests that unexplainable things can be better approached through a format of naturalism as opposed to supernaturalism. Here science is the standard for measuring the subjective experiences of magick, occultism, mysticism, and spirituality. It is basically an approach, one possible one among many, yet it is a very good one, probably the best. This general approach can be applied to any reasonable belief system or even an atheistic angle. It is an approach that keeps superstition and dogma at a minimum. Frater IAO 131 states that the book developed from his studies of social psychology and cognitive neuroscience.

One feature of the book stems from Crowley’s desire to expose and discredit the charlatans which seem to populate occultism and to re-orient occultism toward science. Crowley’s contemporary, the occultist Dion Fortune, noted similar dismay at the proliferation of pseudo-science in occult circles and the author refers several times to her book “Sane Occultism”. The trend seems to have continued on in  the wildly speculative forms of “New Age” Spirituality and psychic hucksters. The author has founded the Society of Scientific Illuminism to further such ends as promoting a more scientific understanding of occultism.  

The author assumes the connection between perception, even consciousness, and the human nervous system. Though one may argue philosophically that consciousness (or perhaps awareness beyond consciousness) can be independent of neurology, for all practical purposes, it is a functional assumption. Changes in the nervous system cause changes in perception – this statement defines Francis Crick’s “Astonishing Hypothesis.” On that basis the author states that:

“Magick might therefore be defined as, “the volitional control of the human nervous system through manipulation of itself, the rest of the body, and its immediate environment.”

He also suggests that the utilization of magical correspondences can be seen as “the intentional conditioning of associations between various sensory stimuli with abstract or moral ideas.” He notes also that initiation might be “understood as the de-conditioning (ie. overcoming mental and behavioral habits) and then re-conditioning of the human nervous system in accordance with the volition of the organism.”

The author offers two types who may be averse to a scientific view of occultism: those who despise and overly distrust science (the charlatan) and those who deliberately misuse science (the pseudo-scientist). Aversion to and distrust of science can be a significant problem these days. While the views of scientists are not always correct and are often not at all absolute, science should be the standard by which things are measured, even those things that are subjective and unseen.

Frater IAO 131 contrasts Scientific Illuminism with three general groups of occultist-types: New Age, Hermeticism, and Chaos Magick. These he critiques and gives their pitfalls as well as their admirable qualities. He notes that New Agers and pagans can be apathetic to mainstream science yet open to pseudo-science and given to consumerism. Hermeticists can fall prey to traditionalism and elitism and sometimes accept philosophical ideas uncritically. Chaos mages can lack a systematic approach and focus overly on material rather than spiritual goals. New Agers and Chaos magicians tend to be healthily open-minded. Hermeticists can be systematic and thorough. Chaos mages tend to be pragmatic, emphasizing what works. Scientific Illuminists, he notes, utilize science as much as possible and avoid antipathy to “mainstream science” while also staying open-minded. Blind faith in tradition is discouraged but experts in their fields are strongly considered. He suggests a general avoidance of commodifying occultism and of any notions of elitism or superiority. I think he correctly sees the judging of others as a waste of energy and notes that we should work in a spirit of collaboration and note the contributions of those outside one’s own traditions.

In a scientific illuminist framework the occult practitioner is likened to a scientist and the occult community to a scientific community utilizing shared data and ideas.

Crowley’s definition of magick as “the Science and Art of causing Change to occur in conformity with Will” suggests that this can be a rather subjective pursuit since many of those changes will be interpreted subjectively. The author likes Dion Fortune’s slight revision of Crowley’s definition, “the Science and Art of causing changes in consciousness to occur in conformity with Will.” This definition focuses more on the subjective aspects of magick, though objective observable results are also quite possible. But even objective occurrences very often are required to be interpreted subjectively. The point he emphasizes is to keep the objective and the subjective separate in evaluations of the results of magickal acts. The means to do this are to utilize the language of phenomenology.

A chapter on Phenomenology gives a good introduction to the subject. The first concept given is that of the “phenomenal field.” Each person is the center of their phenomenal field. This is simply one’s filed of experience through the senses, including thought. Experience is seen as an interaction between us and the external world. In that sense, the external world itself can even be seen as a facet of consciousness. The author suggests that we adopt a phenomenological language of consciousness. Perception appears to be divided into inner and outer and perhaps it is confusion of the two that leads many people to assert external entities as the causes of many phenomena rather than internal perceptual processes involving the human psyche. As the author states it: “a feeling not often experienced is often attributed to some “other” spirit, entity, or force …” This is interesting to me as I have read that descriptions of the “attainment” in Thelema called the “knowledge and conversation of the holy guardian angel” – are often described initially as the sensing of a powerful “other” – this other, or new manifestation of consciousness, ends up being the “higher self” in magico-qabalistic terms. The author does point out that this separation of self and other, or ego and non-ego, or subject and object, can be unified, or un-differentiated, and this unification is often a key factor in describing mystical states. Several examples are given of how phenomenological language may be used to describe subjective experiences. What are described are things like feelings, mental sensing, metaphorical thoughts, and other first person descriptions and accounts of an experience. Metaphysical assumptions are generally to be avoided and the use of this “atheoretical” phenomenological language can even train people to avoid those assumptions . The idea is to focus on the subjective experiences objectively without being so objective as to discount the importance of subjectivity itself. The combining of direct physical evidence with subjective description has been termed “heterophenomenology” by psychologist Daniel Dennet. Utilizing a phenomenological language based in science fosters communication between people of different dogmatic backgrounds. There can be many ways to describe an experience if one uses the dogmas of various magico-religious systems. But if the dogma is sifted away, those experiences can be communicated more universally. Also, it may be useful to find agreed upon equivalences in various systems – and this is of course a part of the idea of magical correspondences. Also one may use the terminology of one’s own system as “shorthand” for descriptive purposes then translating it into the more universal phenomenological language.

Pragmatism deems that what is true is what is useful. Crowley explained this in his statement: “By doing certain things certain results will follow.” Pragmatism is an approach to occult phenomena that favors subjective functionality over asserting the phenomena as objective truth. In other words, what works is more important than constructing a metaphysical model.

The summary of the approach involves formulating the methods and practice along pragmatic lines, doing the practice, recording results with phenomenological language, and utilizing a naturalistic interpretation and explanation of practice and results.

Next he goes into Theory – which is explained naturalistically as in step 4 (above) of the approach. In accordance with the Hermetic axiom “As above, so below” or as the author seems to prefer it “As within, so without” the external world can be seen in terms of a projection of our own psyches. Our tendencies to anthropomorphize forces and see pictures and faces in nature (similar to ‘free association’ in psychology) makes this model of macrocosm a projection of microcosm a potentially useful one.

The symbols of occultism such as planets, elements, zodiac, Sephira, tarot trumps, Hebrew letters, numbers, and other correspondences can be considered to be aspects of the psyche and magick can be considered consciously manipulating these aspects through conditioning. The associating of these symbols with phenomena can form a systematic way of understanding things, albeit with a certain amount of arbitrariness. In this vein the author goes through phenomenological explanations of divination where subjectivity is just as important as the meanings of the symbols that come up. The author notes that,

“The innate pattern-finding drive in human organisms can be bent to the will of the magician.”

He further suggests that divination can best suggest courses of action to alleviate indecision. He notes importantly that a form of cognitive bias known as “confirmation bias” is often at play in divination. This is “a tendency to interpret new information as justifying and affirming preconceived beliefs.” This along with our pattern-finding tendencies may account for much of the seemingly “spot-on” predictions of psychics and readers. So, in terms of Naturalistic Occultism, divination is considered to be objectively arbitrary but potentially subjectively meaningful. Perhaps another way to think of it is that the meanings of symbols are not fixed but change in accordance with how they are used by those who engage them. Similarly, finding patterns in numbers through methods like Gematria can be just as self-fulfilling – even to the point of obsession as one tries to fit the numbers in different schemes to make them match something of interest. Many or should I say most or all gematrians have been guilty of this at one time or another.

In a chapter about why magick seems to work, the author suggests the placebo effect. The placebo effect is a powerful and very real psycho-somatic component of experience. It involves the power of expectation. Expectations alter behavior which may influence how one subjectively experiences something. Magick might be seen as “self-administered placebos.”

In a discussion of “synchronicity”, those uncanny connections and coincidences, the author suggests the cognitive bias called “selective perception” as a cause at least in some cases. This just means we tend to notice things that fit our needs or fulfill our expectations. Jung defined synchronicity as “temporarily coincident occurrences of acausal events.” This definition utilizes the word “acausal” which states that Jung did not see these events as being in any way caused by the other. Even so, these coincidences may be meaningful as they may be a sort of communication from our own psyche, or our unconscious. These are perhaps not messages from the gods or spirits as shamans and psychics conclude, but messages from our hidden selves – but then again if one sees gods and spirits and their myths and stories as manifestations of the unconscious rather than as some external realities then this can be rather equivalent. In magick one may even generate these synchronicities through practice. I have noticed that Western Esotericism in particular is very symbol-oriented and so these happenings do occur. Back when I was a more regularly practicing magician I experienced quite a few synchronicities of this sort. In some forms of shamanism the occurrence of synchronicities is said to be confirmation that the work is functioning on the inner planes.

There is a chapter that compares initiation to psychotherapy. The author suggests that the aims of both may be similar. He defines initiation as attaining a spiritual experience and the continuous de-conditioning in order to improve and manifest that attainment. I am not sure I agree totally here – though perhaps this is more in line with Western systems. In Tantra, initiation is an introduction to a series of practices and accomplishment would be the attainment of the results of that practice. In any case, the definitions have similarities.

He compares initiation to the psychotherapeutic goal of “making the unconscious conscious.”

The author goes on to give a concise introduction to psychotherapy from Freud to Jung’s idea of archetypes and individuation, the latter of which he compares to humanistic psychologist Abraham Maslow’s motivation theories of self-realization or self-actualization. It is interesting to me that the concepts and terminology of psychology and psychotherapy are widely applicable in explaining what we normally call spiritual practices and mystical experiences. It is a universal discipline applicable to religion, mythology, philosophy, shamanism, etc. He also touches on newer forms of psychotherapy such as Cognitive Behavioral Therapy, Gestalt therapy, client-centered therapy, existential-humanistic therapy, humanistic and transpersonal psychology. Crowley even praised the work of Freud and Jung as bringing the methods of the magician into mainstream science. Occultist and psychotherapist Dr. Israel Regardie suggested that magicians would benefit from psychotherapy and highly recommended it. As a good summary statement the author offers:

“Though the methods and underlying theories of psycho-spiritual change may differ, both initiation and psychotherapy have the aim of making the unconscious conscious, actualizing the potential of the individual, of de-conditioning various mental and behavioral habits, and realigning the self to be more in harmony with the entire psyche or organism.”

Frater IAO 131 then shifts to recent cutting-edge neurology that may explain the nature of the astral body of the occultist. This involves a representation of the body created by the brain which is known as the “body image.” Recent research suggests the parietal cortex, the part of the brain that deals with spatial perception, as generating the body image. The author suggests that this body image is none other than the astral body of lore and tradition. I would agree although there may be other astral bodies – as indicated by OBE researcher Robert Monroe and also part of occult and traditional teachings – that are independent of the body image. The neurological explanation of astral phenomena is investigated in some detail and is quite fascinating. He gives four hypotheses on the make up of the astral:

1)      “the astral body is actually the brain’s self-representation of the body”

2)      “the astral plane with all of its “astral phenomena” is actually the self-generated “extrapersonal space” experienced in OBE’s and dreams”

3)      What we perceive as matter is the brain’s interpretation of sensory stimuli from the external environment and what we perceive as astral phenomena is “internally generated stimuli interpreted by the brain.”

4)      “it may be possible for enough volitional attention to be directed towards imagining certain visual stimuli to potentially induce an OBE”

He notes that most methods of astral projection involve physical relaxation and “mental concentration on an imagined extrapersonal visuo-spatial perspective” (a point-of-view outside oneself). This essay on the neurological aspects of the astral body and related phenomena is really quite convincing and he cites several recent neuroscience journal articles. Changes in visual attention may induce astral projection. OBEs occur similarly across many different cultures. One’s sense of balance may be involved. Non-egocentric perspective taking may be an induction method. Astral phenomena are often called visions and the interpretation of visions is quite subjective. The author compares astral workings and scrying to the “projective tests” of psychology such as Rorschach’s ink blot test where we project meaning onto ambiguous stimuli. I think one may include things like hypnagogic imagery and lucid dreaming as astral phenomena as well and as we know these can be associated with various feelings and sensations unique to ourselves.

Frater IAO 131 defines invocation as “the willed activation of latent parts of the psyche.” The gods, goddesses, angels, or demons invoked are understood (in Naturalistic Occultism) to be “symbolized aspects of one’s psyche.” This is identical to practices in Tibetan Buddhism where deities and demons are seen the same way. Even some of our every day acts can be seen as forms of invocation – ie. setting a mood, meditating on a quality, or taking on a persona of some sort. Setting up our correspondences to point to the quality we are trying to bring in is akin to turning knobs to tune in to a certain frequency

There is discussion of “Mystic Attainment” which can be explained in many ways by philosophers and religionists yet there are certain parallels in the various descriptions that can be picked out. One is the uniting of subject and object. This is often how the “non-dualism” of Advaita Vedanta or the Mahamudra of Tantric Buddhism is described. The question is whether this Samadhi, union with God, state of integration, or whatever it is called, is a psychological phenomenon. The evidence strongly suggests that it is. He goes on to describe the four characteristics of mystical experience delineated by William James in his “Varieties of Religious Experience”: 1) Ineffability – difficult to describe, 2) noetic quality – powerful experience with deep conviction, ie. gnosis, illumination, revelation, 3) transiency – a generally short-lived state or a state that ends, 4) passivity – one feels more as a vehicle for the mystical energy. James also said that there is the:

“overcoming of all the usual barriers between the individual and the Absolute” and “in mystic states we both become one with the Absolute and we become aware of our oneness.”

The author suggests that the word “None” utilized in Crowley’s Book of the Law (Liber Al vel Legis) and other writings points to the ineffability aspect of mystical experience better than the words “one” or “unity”.

In the final section on practice, the author again emphasizes that this is one approach to occultism and spiritual practice and should not be seen as denigrating to other approaches which may be in accordance with the will of those who practice them. It is a good general rule of acceptance and open-mindedness to other approaches. Of course, this approach will be seen as functional, sensible, and of great benefit by those keen enough to utilize it. He also describes the approach as accessible and accommodating, even to those of us who tend toward atheism.

The practical exercises given are astral projection or scrying, lucid dreaming, and a form of meditation which he refers to as “un-differentiated consciousness through focused attention.” For the last exercise he classifies progress as: 1) “awareness of only oneself and the object of attention” 2) awareness of only the object of attention, and 3) awareness of neither subject nor object.” He compares these as to the dharana, dhyana, and samadhi of raja yoga.

The author thinks this approach is still in the early stages and with further work and collaboration with magickal records and sharing of experiences and such, that success is more likely than in other approaches. He thinks that the efficacy and rational approach of this style of occultism puts those who practice it at an advantage over those who don’t – an advantage perhaps in being more integrated psychologically, more liable to discover and understand new things, and way more immune to the problems of dogma and superstition. 

The book is written with concise summaries after most chapters and concludes with a very good glossary of terms which can also be a good review.

To recap, this is a most excellent book and one that any Thelemite should especially appreciate as it is a timely revision of Crowley’s brain child of a synthesis of Magick and Science.